Carbohydrates

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CARBOHYDRATES

Carbohydrates are the principal dietary source of energy. They are comprised of simple sugars and complex carbohydrates. The simple sugars such as monosaccharides (i.e., one sugar unit) consist of glucose, fructose, galactose and mannose. Disaccharides (i.e., two sugar units) include sucrose, maltose and lactose. Oligosaccharides, such as raffinose and stachyose in legumes, are composed of 3-10 sugars. The two major forms of starch, amylose and amylopectin, are the major complex carbohydrates or polysaccharides. Polysaccharides are long chains of glucose units, such as starch (storage form in plants) and glycogen (storage form in animals). Dextrins are fragments of starch from dry heat, such as toasting. Dietary fibers are the nonstarch polysaccharides. Both dietary fiber and oligosaccharides are not digestible by the mammalian enzymes in the gastrointestinal tract. Other carbohydrate-related compounds include organic acids such as citric acid and malic acid, and polyols (i.e., sugar alcohols such as sorbitol and xylitol).

Deficiency:
There is no absolute requirement for dietary carbohydrate. However, in the absence of dietary sugars and starch, stored fat (triacyglyceride) is released via lipolysis and is oxidized for energy. This increases ketone body formation and may produce ketosis. A carbohydrate-free diet is associated with an increase in protein breakdown, dehydration and loss of cations. The effect of a low carbohydrate diet can be overcome by a daily intake of as little as 50-100 g carbohydrate.

Diet recommendations:
No formal diet recommendations for carbohydrates exist as intakes are adequate in U.S. diets. The Daily Value for carbohydrates used in nutritional labeling is 60% of total calories or 300 g/day for a 2,000 Calorie diet. In 1985, the U.S. average carbohydrate intake for adult females was 177 g and for males 287 g. Assessment of individual diets demonstrated that approximately 23% of the carbohydrate came from fruits and vegetables, while 41% was from grain products. Additionally, about half of the total carbohydrate intake was in the form of mono- and disaccharides and the reminder was comprised of complex carbohydrates.

Food sources:
The monosaccharides, glucose and fructose, are found in fruits and honey. Of the disaccharides, sucrose (composed of glucose and fructose) is commonly consumed in the form of cane or beet sugar (table sugar), but is also found in molasses, maple syrup and some fruits. Maltose (two glucose units) is a component of sprouting grains, malted cereals and some corn syrups. Lactose (glucose and galactose) is the sugar in milk. Amylose is the dominant starch in wheat and rice. Amylopectin is found in corn, potatoes and tapioca. Resistant starches are those that evade digestion in the human gastrointestinal tract for one of several reasons: (a) they are physically inaccessible to alpha-amylase; (b) the starch is in granular form and is resistant to digestive enzymes; or (c) retrograded amylose may form after cooling starch that has been gelatinized by moist heating. Up to 7-10% of starch from wheat, oats and potatoes and 20% from baked beans can pass through to the colon. Resistant starch found in the colon is fermented by the microflora.

Recent research:
Interest continues in the effect of consumption of complex carbohydrates on maintaining normal glycemic index in patients with non-insulin dependent diabetes mellitus and normal lipid levels in patients at risk of cardiovascular disease. Recently, it has been shown that hyperactivity in children is not associated with sugar intake.

Toxicity:
Toxicity does not occur from excessive ingestion of carbohydrates in healthy persons.

For further information

Macdonald, I. (1994) Carbohydrates. In: Modern Nutrition in Health and Disease (Shils, M.E., Olson, J.A. & Shike, M., eds.), 8th ed., pp. 36-46. Lea & Febiger, Philadelphia, PA

Freeland-Graves, J. & G. Peckham. (1996) Carbohydrates. In: Foundations of Food Preparation, 6th ed., pp. 36-48. Merrill/Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ

National Research Council. (1989) Diet and Health. Implications for Reducing Chronic Disease Risk. National Academy Press, Washington, DC.

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